نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی
نویسنده
عضو هیئت علمی گروه روانشناسی دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز،اهواز،ایران
10.22055/psy.1998.16430
چکیده
با اینکه روانشناسان بسیاری به پدیده خلاقیت ابراز علاقه کرده‌اند، پژوهش روانشناختی در خصوص آن به سرعت گسترش نیافت، تا اینکه ج.پی. گیلفورد[1] در خطابه خود به هنگام احراز ریاست انجمن روانشناسی آمریکا در سال 1950، اعلام کرد که این موضوع سزاوار توجه خیلی بیشتری از آن چیزی است که دریافت می‌دارد. این مقاله پیشرفتی را که روانشناسان، از زمان درخواست گیلفورد برای تلاش در این زمینه، در جهت فهم خلاقیت به عمل آورده‌اند بازنگری می‌کند. پیشرفت پژوهشی در چهار جبهه روی داده است: فرایندهای شناختی درگیر در عمل خلاق، ویژگیهای متمایز آدم خلاق، تحول و تظاهر خلاقیت در طول زندگی فرد، و محیطهای اجتماعی شدیداً وابسته به فعالیت خلاق. با اینکه پرسشهای مهمی هنوز بی‌پاسخ مانده‌اند، اینک روانشناسان بیش از پیش می‌دانند که چگونه افراد به این کنش بهینه انسانی ویژه و مهم دست می‌یابند.
عنوان مقاله [English]
Creativity Cognitive, Personal, Developmental, and Social Aspects
نویسنده [English]
- H . Shokrkon
Faculty member of Psychology Department, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
چکیده [English]
Although many psychologists have expressed an interest in the phenomenon of creativity, psychological research on this topic did not rapidly expand until Wafter J. P. Guilford claimed, in his 1950 APA presidential address, that this topic deserved far more attention than it was then receiving. This article reviews the progress psychologists have made in understanding creativity since Guilford’s call to arms. Research progress has taken place on 4 fronts: the cognitive processes involved in the creative act, the distinctive characteristics of the creative person, the development and manifestation of creativity across the individual life span, and the social environments most strongly associated with creative activity. Although some important questions remain unanswered, psychologists now know more than ever before about how individuals achieve this special and significant form of optimal human functioning.
Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity. New York: Springer- verlag.
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Bar,ron, F. X. (1969). Creative person and creative process. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Barron, F. X. & Harrington, D. M. (1981). Creativity, intelligence, and personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 439-476.
Boden, M. A. (1991). The creative mind: Myths & mechanisms. New York: Basic Books.
Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (1994). Genes, environment, and personality. Science, 264,
1700-1701.
Bowers, K. S., Farvolden, P., & Mermigis, L. (1995). Intuitive antecedents of insight. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The creative cognition approach (pp. 27-51). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Campbell, D. T. (1960). Blind variation and selective retention in creative thought as in other knowledge processes. psychological Review, 67,380-400.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). The domain of creativity. In M. A. Runco & R.
S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity (pp. 190-212). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discoveiy and invention. New York: Harper Collins.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers:
The roots of success and failure. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Dellas, M., & Gaier, E. L. (1970). Identification of creativity: The individual. Psychological Bulletin, 73, 55-73.
Dennis, W. (1966). Creative productivity between the ages of 20 and 80 years. Journal of Gerontology, 21, 1-8.
Diehi, M., & Stroebe, W. (1987). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups:
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Bar,ron, F. X. (1969). Creative person and creative process. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Barron, F. X. & Harrington, D. M. (1981). Creativity, intelligence, and personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 439-476.
Boden, M. A. (1991). The creative mind: Myths & mechanisms. New York: Basic Books.
Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (1994). Genes, environment, and personality. Science, 264,
1700-1701.
Bowers, K. S., Farvolden, P., & Mermigis, L. (1995). Intuitive antecedents of insight. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The creative cognition approach (pp. 27-51). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Campbell, D. T. (1960). Blind variation and selective retention in creative thought as in other knowledge processes. psychological Review, 67,380-400.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). The domain of creativity. In M. A. Runco & R.
S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity (pp. 190-212). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discoveiy and invention. New York: Harper Collins.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers:
The roots of success and failure. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Dellas, M., & Gaier, E. L. (1970). Identification of creativity: The individual. Psychological Bulletin, 73, 55-73.
Dennis, W. (1966). Creative productivity between the ages of 20 and 80 years. Journal of Gerontology, 21, 1-8.
Diehi, M., & Stroebe, W. (1987). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups:
Toward the solution of a riddle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
53, 497-509.
Dunbar, K. (1995). How scientists really reason: Scientific reasoning in real-world laboratories. In R. J. Sternherg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of insight (pp. 365-396). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Eisenbergcr, R., & Cameron, J. (1996). Detrimental effects of reward: Reality or myth’? American Psychologist, 51, 1153-1166.
Eisenstadt, J. M. (1978). Parental loss and genius. American Psychologist, 33,
211-223.
Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.). (1996). The road to expert peiformance: Empirical evidence from the arts and sciences, sports, and games. Mahwah, NJ: Eribaum.
Eysenck, H.. J. (1995). Genius: The natural history of creativity. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Farr, J. L. (1990). Facilitating individual role innovation. In M. A. West & J.
L. Farr (Eds.), Innovation and creativity at work: Psychological and orgaizutional strategies (pp. 207-230). New York: Wiley.
Finke, R. A., Ward, T. B., & Smith, S. M. (1992). Creative cognition: Theory, research, and applications. Cambridge. MA: Press.
Gallon, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences.
London: Macmillan.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: A theory of multiple intelligences. New
York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1993). Creating minds: An anatomy of creativity seen through the lives of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi. New
York: Basic Books.
Gedo, J. E. (1997). Psychoanalytic theories of creativity. In M. A. Runco (Ed.). The creativity research handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 29-39). Cresskill, NJ:
Hampton Press.
Getzels, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1976). The creative vision: A longitudinal study of problom finding in art. New York: Wiley.
Goertzel, M. G., & Goertzel, T. G. (1978). 300 eminent personalities: A psychosocial analysis of the famous. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
53, 497-509.
Dunbar, K. (1995). How scientists really reason: Scientific reasoning in real-world laboratories. In R. J. Sternherg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of insight (pp. 365-396). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Eisenbergcr, R., & Cameron, J. (1996). Detrimental effects of reward: Reality or myth’? American Psychologist, 51, 1153-1166.
Eisenstadt, J. M. (1978). Parental loss and genius. American Psychologist, 33,
211-223.
Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.). (1996). The road to expert peiformance: Empirical evidence from the arts and sciences, sports, and games. Mahwah, NJ: Eribaum.
Eysenck, H.. J. (1995). Genius: The natural history of creativity. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Farr, J. L. (1990). Facilitating individual role innovation. In M. A. West & J.
L. Farr (Eds.), Innovation and creativity at work: Psychological and orgaizutional strategies (pp. 207-230). New York: Wiley.
Finke, R. A., Ward, T. B., & Smith, S. M. (1992). Creative cognition: Theory, research, and applications. Cambridge. MA: Press.
Gallon, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences.
London: Macmillan.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: A theory of multiple intelligences. New
York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1993). Creating minds: An anatomy of creativity seen through the lives of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi. New
York: Basic Books.
Gedo, J. E. (1997). Psychoanalytic theories of creativity. In M. A. Runco (Ed.). The creativity research handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 29-39). Cresskill, NJ:
Hampton Press.
Getzels, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1976). The creative vision: A longitudinal study of problom finding in art. New York: Wiley.
Goertzel, M. G., & Goertzel, T. G. (1978). 300 eminent personalities: A psychosocial analysis of the famous. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gruber, H. B. (1989). The evolving systems approach to creative work. In D.
B. Wallace & H. B. Gruber (Eds.), creative people at work: Twelve cognitive case studies (pp. 3-24). New York: Oxford University Press.
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5, 444-454.
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Harrington, D. M. (1990). The ecology of human creativity: A psychological perspective. In M. A. Runco & R. S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity (pp. 143-169). Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
Hayes, J. R. (1989). The complete problem solver (2nd ed.). Hilisdale, NJ:
Eribaum.
Helson, R. (1990). Creativity in women: Outer and inner views over time. In
M. A. Runco & R. S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity (pp. 46-58). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Howe, M. J. A., Davidson, J. W., & Sloboda, J. A. (1998). Innate talents:
Reality or myth? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 399-442.
Jamison, K. R. (1993). Touched with fire: Manic-depressive illness and the artistic temperament. New York: Free Press.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993). Human and machine thinking. Hilisdale, NJ:
Erlhaum.
Kroeher, A. L. (1944). confIgurations of culture growth. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago:
University of Chicago press.
Lambert, W. B., Tucker, G. R., & d’Anglejan, A. (1973). Cognitive and attitudinal consequences of bilingual schooling: The St. Lambert project through grade five. Journal of Educational Psycholo’, 65, 141-159.
Langley, P., Simon, H. A., Bradshaw, G. L., & Zythow, J. M. (1987). ScientWc discovery. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lehman, H. C. (1953). Age and achievement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Lindauer, M. S. (1993a). The old-age style and its artists. Empirical Studies and
B. Wallace & H. B. Gruber (Eds.), creative people at work: Twelve cognitive case studies (pp. 3-24). New York: Oxford University Press.
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5, 444-454.
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Harrington, D. M. (1990). The ecology of human creativity: A psychological perspective. In M. A. Runco & R. S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity (pp. 143-169). Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
Hayes, J. R. (1989). The complete problem solver (2nd ed.). Hilisdale, NJ:
Eribaum.
Helson, R. (1990). Creativity in women: Outer and inner views over time. In
M. A. Runco & R. S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity (pp. 46-58). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Howe, M. J. A., Davidson, J. W., & Sloboda, J. A. (1998). Innate talents:
Reality or myth? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 399-442.
Jamison, K. R. (1993). Touched with fire: Manic-depressive illness and the artistic temperament. New York: Free Press.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993). Human and machine thinking. Hilisdale, NJ:
Erlhaum.
Kroeher, A. L. (1944). confIgurations of culture growth. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago:
University of Chicago press.
Lambert, W. B., Tucker, G. R., & d’Anglejan, A. (1973). Cognitive and attitudinal consequences of bilingual schooling: The St. Lambert project through grade five. Journal of Educational Psycholo’, 65, 141-159.
Langley, P., Simon, H. A., Bradshaw, G. L., & Zythow, J. M. (1987). ScientWc discovery. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lehman, H. C. (1953). Age and achievement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Lindauer, M. S. (1993a). The old-age style and its artists. Empirical Studies and
the Arts, 11, 135-146
Lindauer, M. S. (1993b). The span of creativity among long-lived historical artists. Creativity Research Journal, 6, 231-239.
Ludwig, A. M. (1995). The price of greatness: Resolving the creativity and madness controversy. New York: Guilford Press.
Lykken, D. T. (1998). The genetics of genius. In A. Steptoe (Ed.), Genius and the mind: Studies of creativity and the mind: Studies of creativity and temperament in the historical record (pp. 15-37). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mackinnon, D. W. (1978). In search of human effectiveness. Buffalo, NY:
Creative Education Foundation.
Martindale, C. (1989). Personality, situation, and creativity. In J. A. Glover, R.
R. Ronning, & C. R. Reynolds (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 211-232). New York: Plenum Press.
Martindale, C. (1990). The clockwork muse: The predictability of artistic styles. New York: Basic Books.
Martindale, C. (1995). Creativity and connectionism. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.). The creative cognition approach (pp. 249-268). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
McCrae. R. R., Arenberg, D., & Costa, P. T. (1987). Declines in divergent thinking with age: Cross-sectional, and cross-sequential analyses. Psychology and Aging, 2. 130-136.
Nemeth, C. J., Kwan, J. (1987). Minority influence, divergent thinking and detection of correct solutions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17,
788-799.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Osborn, A. F. (1963). Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem-solving (3rd ed.). New York: Scribner.
Root-Bernstein, R. S., Bernstein, M., & Gamier, H. (1993). Identification of scientists making long-term, high-impact contributions, with notes on their methods of working. Creativity Research Journal, 6, 329-343.
Lindauer, M. S. (1993b). The span of creativity among long-lived historical artists. Creativity Research Journal, 6, 231-239.
Ludwig, A. M. (1995). The price of greatness: Resolving the creativity and madness controversy. New York: Guilford Press.
Lykken, D. T. (1998). The genetics of genius. In A. Steptoe (Ed.), Genius and the mind: Studies of creativity and the mind: Studies of creativity and temperament in the historical record (pp. 15-37). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mackinnon, D. W. (1978). In search of human effectiveness. Buffalo, NY:
Creative Education Foundation.
Martindale, C. (1989). Personality, situation, and creativity. In J. A. Glover, R.
R. Ronning, & C. R. Reynolds (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 211-232). New York: Plenum Press.
Martindale, C. (1990). The clockwork muse: The predictability of artistic styles. New York: Basic Books.
Martindale, C. (1995). Creativity and connectionism. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.). The creative cognition approach (pp. 249-268). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
McCrae. R. R., Arenberg, D., & Costa, P. T. (1987). Declines in divergent thinking with age: Cross-sectional, and cross-sequential analyses. Psychology and Aging, 2. 130-136.
Nemeth, C. J., Kwan, J. (1987). Minority influence, divergent thinking and detection of correct solutions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17,
788-799.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Osborn, A. F. (1963). Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem-solving (3rd ed.). New York: Scribner.
Root-Bernstein, R. S., Bernstein, M., & Gamier, H. (1993). Identification of scientists making long-term, high-impact contributions, with notes on their methods of working. Creativity Research Journal, 6, 329-343.
Rothenberg, A. (1990). creativity and madness: New findings and old stereotypes.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Roy, M. C., Gauvin, S., & Limayem. M. (1996). Electronic group brainstorming: The role of feedback on productivity. Small Group Research,
27, 215-247.
Rubenson, D. L., & Runco, M. A. (1992). The psychoecOflOmiC approach to creativity. New Ideas in Psychology, 10, 131-147.
Schooler, J. W. & Meicher, J. (1995). The ineffability of insight. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The creative cognition approach (pp. 97-133). Cambridge. MA: MIT Press.
Shadish, W. R., Jr. (1989). The perception and evaluation of quality in science. In B. Gholson, W. R. Shadish, Jr., R. A. Neimeyer, & A. C. Houts (Eds.), The psychology of science: Contributions to metascience (pp. 383-426). Cambridge, England: €amtridge University Press.
Shrage, J., & Langley, P. (Eds.), (19). computational models of scientific discovery and theory formation. San Mateo, CA: Kaufmanfl.
Simonton, D. k. (1975). Sociocultural context of individual creativity: A transhistoriCal time-series analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1119-1133.
Simonton, D. k. (1976). PhilosophiCal eminence, beliefs, and Zeitgeist: An individual-generational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
34, 630-640.
Simonton, D. K. (1980). Thematic fame, melodic originality, and musical
Zeitgeist: A biographical and transhistoriCal content analysis. JouriUti of Personality and Social psychology, 38, 972-983.
Simonton, D. K. (1984). Genius, Creativity, and leadership: HistoriometriC inquiries. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.
Simonton, D. K. (1987). Developmental antecedents of achieved eminence. Annals ot Child Development, 5, 131-169.
Simonton, D. K. (1988). Age and outstanding achievement: What do we know after a century of research? Psychological Bulletin, 104, 251-267.
Simonton, D. K. (1989). The swan-song phenomenon: Last-works affects for 172 classical composers. Psychology and Aging, 4, 42-47.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Roy, M. C., Gauvin, S., & Limayem. M. (1996). Electronic group brainstorming: The role of feedback on productivity. Small Group Research,
27, 215-247.
Rubenson, D. L., & Runco, M. A. (1992). The psychoecOflOmiC approach to creativity. New Ideas in Psychology, 10, 131-147.
Schooler, J. W. & Meicher, J. (1995). The ineffability of insight. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The creative cognition approach (pp. 97-133). Cambridge. MA: MIT Press.
Shadish, W. R., Jr. (1989). The perception and evaluation of quality in science. In B. Gholson, W. R. Shadish, Jr., R. A. Neimeyer, & A. C. Houts (Eds.), The psychology of science: Contributions to metascience (pp. 383-426). Cambridge, England: €amtridge University Press.
Shrage, J., & Langley, P. (Eds.), (19). computational models of scientific discovery and theory formation. San Mateo, CA: Kaufmanfl.
Simonton, D. k. (1975). Sociocultural context of individual creativity: A transhistoriCal time-series analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1119-1133.
Simonton, D. k. (1976). PhilosophiCal eminence, beliefs, and Zeitgeist: An individual-generational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
34, 630-640.
Simonton, D. K. (1980). Thematic fame, melodic originality, and musical
Zeitgeist: A biographical and transhistoriCal content analysis. JouriUti of Personality and Social psychology, 38, 972-983.
Simonton, D. K. (1984). Genius, Creativity, and leadership: HistoriometriC inquiries. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.
Simonton, D. K. (1987). Developmental antecedents of achieved eminence. Annals ot Child Development, 5, 131-169.
Simonton, D. K. (1988). Age and outstanding achievement: What do we know after a century of research? Psychological Bulletin, 104, 251-267.
Simonton, D. K. (1989). The swan-song phenomenon: Last-works affects for 172 classical composers. Psychology and Aging, 4, 42-47.
Simonton, D. k. (1991a). Career landmarks in science: Individual differences and interdisciplinary contrasts. Developmental Psychology, 27, 119-130.
Simonton, D. k. (1991b). Emergence and realization of genius: The lives and works of 120 classical composers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 829-840.
Simonton, D. k. (1992a). Gender and genius in Japan: Feminine eminence in masculine culture. Sex Roles, 27, 101-119.
Simonton, D. k. (1992b). Leaders of American psychology, 1879-1967: Career development, creative output, and professional achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 5-17.
Simonton, D. k. (1994). Greatness: Who makes history and why. New York:
Guilford Press.
Simonton, D. k. (1997a). Creative productivity: A predictive and explanatory model of career trajectories and landmarks. Psychological Review, 104,
66-89.
Simonton, D. k. (1997b). Foreign influence and national achievement: The impact of open milieus on Japanese civilization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 86-94.
Simonton, D. K. (1998). Achieved eminence in minority and majority cultures:
Convergence versus divergence in the assessments of 294 African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 804-817.
Simonton, IJ. K. (1999a). Creativity and genius. In L. Pervin & 0. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 629-652). New York: Guilforci Press.
Simontori, D. K. (1999b). Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. New York: Oxford University Press.
Simonton, D. K. (1999c). Talent and its development: An emergenic and epigenetic model. Psychological Review, 106, 435-457.
Smith, S. M., Ward, T. b., & Finke, R. A. (Eds.). (1995). The creative cognition approach. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Sorokin, P. A. (1969). Society, culure, and personality. New York: Cooper Square. (Original work published 1947).
Simonton, D. k. (1991b). Emergence and realization of genius: The lives and works of 120 classical composers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 829-840.
Simonton, D. k. (1992a). Gender and genius in Japan: Feminine eminence in masculine culture. Sex Roles, 27, 101-119.
Simonton, D. k. (1992b). Leaders of American psychology, 1879-1967: Career development, creative output, and professional achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 5-17.
Simonton, D. k. (1994). Greatness: Who makes history and why. New York:
Guilford Press.
Simonton, D. k. (1997a). Creative productivity: A predictive and explanatory model of career trajectories and landmarks. Psychological Review, 104,
66-89.
Simonton, D. k. (1997b). Foreign influence and national achievement: The impact of open milieus on Japanese civilization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 86-94.
Simonton, D. K. (1998). Achieved eminence in minority and majority cultures:
Convergence versus divergence in the assessments of 294 African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 804-817.
Simonton, IJ. K. (1999a). Creativity and genius. In L. Pervin & 0. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 629-652). New York: Guilforci Press.
Simontori, D. K. (1999b). Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. New York: Oxford University Press.
Simonton, D. K. (1999c). Talent and its development: An emergenic and epigenetic model. Psychological Review, 106, 435-457.
Smith, S. M., Ward, T. b., & Finke, R. A. (Eds.). (1995). The creative cognition approach. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Sorokin, P. A. (1969). Society, culure, and personality. New York: Cooper Square. (Original work published 1947).
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A riarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Davidson, J. E. (Eds.). (1995). The nature of insight. Cambridge. MA: MIT Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Gordeeva. T. (1996). The anatomy of impact: What makes an article influential? Psychological Science, 7, 69-75.
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York: Free Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1996). Investing in creativity. American Psychologist, 51, 677-688.
Subotnik, R. f., & Arnold, K. D. (Eds.). (1994). Beyond Terman: Contemporary longitudinal studies of giftedness and talent. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Terman, L. M. (1925). Menial and physical traits of a thousand gifted children. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Wallace, D. B., & Gruber, H. E. (Eds.). (1989). Creative people at work Twehe cognitive case studies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wailer, N. G., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Lykken, D. T., Tellegen, A., & Blacker, D. M. (1993). Creativity, heritability, familiality: Which Word does not belong? Psychological Inquiry, 4, 235-237.
Ward, T. B., Smith, S. M., & Vaid, J. (Eds.), Creative thought: An investigation of conceptual structures and processes. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Sternberg, R. J., & Davidson, J. E. (Eds.). (1995). The nature of insight. Cambridge. MA: MIT Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Gordeeva. T. (1996). The anatomy of impact: What makes an article influential? Psychological Science, 7, 69-75.
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York: Free Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1996). Investing in creativity. American Psychologist, 51, 677-688.
Subotnik, R. f., & Arnold, K. D. (Eds.). (1994). Beyond Terman: Contemporary longitudinal studies of giftedness and talent. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Terman, L. M. (1925). Menial and physical traits of a thousand gifted children. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Wallace, D. B., & Gruber, H. E. (Eds.). (1989). Creative people at work Twehe cognitive case studies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wailer, N. G., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Lykken, D. T., Tellegen, A., & Blacker, D. M. (1993). Creativity, heritability, familiality: Which Word does not belong? Psychological Inquiry, 4, 235-237.
Ward, T. B., Smith, S. M., & Vaid, J. (Eds.), Creative thought: An investigation of conceptual structures and processes. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
)