Clinical Psychology
mahin etemadnia; parsa javanmard; Abbas Bakhshipour Roudsari; Mansour Bayrami
Abstract
Introduction
The present study evaluated the triple vulnerability model for depression, general anxiety, and social phobia. Depression and anxiety disorders have significant overlap with each other. Emotional disorders occur together because their underlying vulnerability is the same, but this common ...
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Introduction
The present study evaluated the triple vulnerability model for depression, general anxiety, and social phobia. Depression and anxiety disorders have significant overlap with each other. Emotional disorders occur together because their underlying vulnerability is the same, but this common vulnerability appears heterogeneously as a result of exposure to various environmental influences, genetic-biological factors, etc. Each level of the triple vulnerability model for each disorder was examined with looming vulnerability style as a disorder-specific psychological vulnerability for GAD and social phobia. This model assumes that three components of vulnerability are involved in the etiology of emotional disorders; the first component is the general biological vulnerability, which refers to the genetic dimensions of temperament such as extroversion and introversion, which are related to high levels of anxiety and dependent negative emotions. The second component is general psychological vulnerability, which the triple model of vulnerability indicates that the feeling of unpredictability and uncontrollability of life events and emotional states is considered as psychological vulnerability to mood and anxiety disorders. The third component is disorder-specific vulnerability. The triple vulnerability model postulates that specific psychological vulnerability determines the origin and expression of mood and anxiety disorders through learning experiences that cause a specific focus of disturbance and distress.
Method
This research is a descriptive-correlational study. The statistical population consisted of undergraduate students from Urmia universities, including Government, Azad, Industrial, and Payam Noor universities. Based on the research methodology and data analysis requirements, and following Klain’s (2005) recommendation of a minimum of twenty participants per parameter to ensure robust results, 370 participants were initially selected from this population using a convenience sampling method. To account for potential attrition, only 340 completed questionnaires were analyzed after removing those with distorted responses or incomplete answers. These 340 students completed Neuroticism and Extraversion Subscales (Neo-FFI), Anxiety Control Questionnaire (ACQ-R), Looming Maladaptive Style Questionnaire (LMSQ-R), Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS), Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ), and Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire (APPQ). The final sample included 177 male and 162 female participants, with a mean age of 20.5 years (SD = 2.56) and an age range of 18 to 27.
Results
The results of path analysis indicated that neuroticism had significant direct effects on all three disorders, and holding neuroticism constant, extraversion was inversely associated with depression and social phobia. Perceived control was significantly associated with GAD only, holding neuroticism and extraversion constant. Of the disorder-specific psychological vulnerability, holding general vulnerability dimensions constant, looming vulnerability style was not specific predictor of GAD and social phobia. Based on the results reported in the first model of the study (general bio-vulnerability), the effect coefficients of all variables are significant at the level (p <0.01). In the second model (general psychological vulnerability), the coefficients of the effect of neuroticism and extraversion on all three variables are significant; However, the perceived control pathway coefficient is significant only on pervasive anxiety (p <0.01). In the third model of the research (specific vulnerability with the addition of near-risk perception style), the coefficients of the effect of neuroticism, extraversion and perceived control on all three variables are significant; However, after maintaining the effect of the dimensions of general vulnerability, namely neuroticism, extraversion, and perceived control, the coefficient of the near-risk perception pathway on social anxiety and depression is significant. Perceived control path's coefficients on social anxiety, generalized anxiety disorder and depression were reported as -0.25, -0.30 and -0.28, respectively (p <0.01). The coefficient of near-risk perception style path's coefficient on social anxiety (0.26) is at the level of 0.01 and the pathway coefficient of near-risk perception style on depression (0.19) is at the level of 0.05; however, the coefficient of near-risk perception style on pervasive anxiety (0.11) is not significant.
Conclusion
The looming vulnerability style is a broadly shared cognitive vulnerability hypothesized to interact with disorder-specific mechanisms across various anxiety disorders (e.g., fear of social rejection in social phobia, excessive worry and catastrophizing in generalized anxiety disorder). However, the present study’s findings, using Barlow's triple model, did not support this hypothesis. One potential explanation may be the limitations in the measurement tool for risk perception style, particularly its insufficient representation of generalized anxiety disorder-related factors. Further research is required to better understand this relationship and refine measurement approaches in this area.
Existing conceptual models suggest that personality dimensions, such as neuroticism and extraversion, contribute to the severity, overlap, and persistence of both depression and anxiety. However, these personality dimensions alone do not fully explain the etiology, progression, and complexity of emotional disorders. Consequently, examining disorder-specific factors within a broader etiological model-one that integrates both shared characteristics and unique dimensions-could enhance our understanding of the causes and differentiation of these disorders.
Clinical Psychology
Mona Mohammadi; Mahnaz Mehrabizadeh Honarmand; Iran Davoudi; Saeid Afrozpour; Mehdi Soleimani
Abstract
Introduction
In recent years, studies in the field of narcissism have received increasing attention from researchers, but despite the growing interest in the concept of narcissism, there are many unanswered questions, especially about the nature of this structure. A review of clinical research on narcissism ...
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Introduction
In recent years, studies in the field of narcissism have received increasing attention from researchers, but despite the growing interest in the concept of narcissism, there are many unanswered questions, especially about the nature of this structure. A review of clinical research on narcissism and narcissistic personality pathology shows that there are two narcissistic phenotypes, grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism. Grandiose narcissism is defined as a grandiose notion of oneself, disrespecting others, and being entitled and includes characteristics such as self-arrogance, pretentiousness, and dominance. Feelings of anger, despair, emptiness, low self-esteem and even suicide when they fail are common experiences of these people. At the interpersonal level, people with these characteristics withdraw from interpersonal relationships due to sensitivity to rejection and criticism. In contrast, the vulnerable type is not obvious most of the time and is characterized by a strong need for approval, admiration from others and sensitivity to rejection. These people have a negative self-concept, and their sense of self-worth depends on the approval of others, and if they do not receive it, they avoid people and social relationships. Considering the difference between these two types of narcissism, its further investigation and recognition in different interpersonal contexts leads to more accurate clinical diagnosis and more specialized services. One of the structures that can be related to types of narcissism is self-presentation guides. Narcissistic people use self-presentation tactics more than others due to their high need to influence others. The present study aimed to investigate the role of grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism in predicting self-presentation tactics in students of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz.
Method
The descriptive research method of conventional (focal) correlation and its statistical population are all graduate students of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz who were studying in 1996-97 (N = 1500). After obtaining the necessary permits from Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, the questionnaires were distributed among the selected students based on a multi-stage cluster random sampling method. Data were analyzed by SPSS statistical software. A total of 250 students were randomly selected based on Cochran's formula according to the size of the population, in a multi-stage cluster method. Finally, by stratified random sampling method, the sample size was selected from the target population (n = 222). Collection tools included a pathological narcissism questionnaire (Pincus et al., 2009) and a scale of self-Presentation tactics (Tedeschi & Melburg, 1984). The pathological narcissism questionnaire contains 52 descriptive questions. This questionnaire has seven subscales, including self-concealment, devaluation, conditional self-respect, self-improvement with self-sacrifice, exploitation, grandiose fantasy, and righteous anger. These seven subscales are in two higher-level dimensions of grandiose narcissism with the components of exploitation, self-enhancement with selflessness and grandiose fantasy, and vulnerable narcissism with the components of self-concealment, conditioned self-esteem, justified anger, and devaluation, all of which subscales are identified as pathological narcissism. The self-expression questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil tool that contains 63 questions and 12 components. Questionnaire of self-presentation tactics, five types of defensive self-presentation tactics, including: non-responsibility, self-incapacitation, excuse, apology and justification, and 7 self-presentation tactics of self-expression including: request, exaggeration, intimidation, humiliation, entitlement, role model and examines self-indulgence.
Results
The results showed that the linear combination of defensive and assertive self-presentation tactics can be predicted by the linear combination of predictor variables. The significance of the whole model showed that there is a significant relationship between the two variables of self-Presentation tactics and existential expression with grandiose and vulnerable narcissis (P<0.005). Predictive variables explain 28% of the variance of the criterion variables. Overall, the findings showed that the types of narcissism (grandiose and vulnerable) can be predicted based on the type and extent of using different types of self-presentation tactics (defensive and assertiveness). Of the two criterion variables, presentation tactics are more important in the linear criterion variable. On the other hand, in the first function, among the predictor variables, the narcissistic narcissist has the largest share in the linear composition of its category. In other words, the first function of self-Presentation tactics is predicted by grandiose narcissism. In explaining the results of the present study, it seems that people with grandiose narcissism had a greater tendency to use defensive self-expression and self-presentation tactics than vulnerable narcissists. In grandiose narcissism, insecurity (e.g., fear of negative evaluation) is very important. Deep feelings of inadequacy and psychological insecurity in narcissism lead to the tendency of narcissistic people to use defensive self-presentation tactics.
Discussion
According to the findings of the present study, it is suggested that clinical specialists pay special attention to the types of narcissism and the self-presentation tactics of clients with narcissistic personality disorder in order to know and understand more about these people
eghbal zarei; maryam mobbasser; shiringol karimpour
Abstract
Introduction
Bullying represents one of the most harmful and aggressive forms of misconduct, prevalent in many school environments. This behavior can have lasting and detrimental effects on both the individual being bullied and the bully themselves, contributing to a range of psychological issues, emotional ...
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Introduction
Bullying represents one of the most harmful and aggressive forms of misconduct, prevalent in many school environments. This behavior can have lasting and detrimental effects on both the individual being bullied and the bully themselves, contributing to a range of psychological issues, emotional distress, and even physical harm. Within the school context, bullying is a persistent issue that significantly impacts students' lives, shaping their experiences and influencing their mental well-being and academic performance.Bullying can take on multiple forms, encompassing verbal and physical aggression, threats, ridicule, and coercion. It often includes direct harassment, verbal abuse, and hostile behaviors intended to intimidate, isolate, or demean others. This behavior can also manifest in subtler forms, such as threatening body language or expressions that convey contempt or hostility. Through these varied behaviors, bullying not only disrupts the victim’s sense of safety and self-worth but can also affect the overall school climate, leading to a hostile environment that impacts all students.The significance of addressing bullying is critical, as unchecked bullying can lead to a cycle of aggression and retaliation that escalates the intensity of the misconduct over time. Research has shown that bullying not only leads to psychological harm in victims—such as anxiety, depression, and decreased self-esteem—but can also reinforce negative behaviors in bullies, increasing their likelihood of engaging in other forms of delinquent or antisocial behavior.
In response to this pervasive issue, the current study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of anger management training based on cognitive approaches in reducing impulsivity among male bully students. By addressing impulsivity, a known predictor of aggressive and bullying behaviors, this intervention seeks to equip students with cognitive tools to recognize, regulate, and redirect their anger in healthier, less destructive ways. This approach focuses on helping bully students develop skills in self-awareness, emotional regulation, and constructive communication, ultimately fostering a shift toward more prosocial behavior.
Method
This study utilized a quasi-experimental design, incorporating pretest, posttest, a control group, and a two-month follow-up to assess the effectiveness of cognitive-based anger management training on reducing impulsivity in male bully students. The statistical population included male bully students enrolled in the first year of high school in Bandar Abbas during the 2019-2020 academic year. Through purposive sampling, 30 male students exhibiting bullying behaviors were selected and then randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group, with each group initially containing 15 students.
The experimental group participated in eight intervention sessions, each lasting 75 minutes, over the course of one month. These sessions focused on anger management techniques based on the cognitive approach as outlined by Shokouhi Yekta and Kakabaraei (2017). However, during the study, 2 students from the experimental group and 3 from the control group discontinued participation, leaving a final sample of 25 students—13 in the experimental group and 12 in the control group.
The study employed two primary assessment tools: the Illinois Bullying Scale (IBS), developed by Espelage and Holt (2001), to measure bullying behavior, and the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS), established by Barratt, Stanford, Kent, and Felthous (2004), to assess impulsivity levels. Data collected from these tools were analyzed using Mixed ANOVA in SPSS-23 software, a statistical method chosen due to the study’s structure, which involved two groups (experimental and control) and three measurement points (pretest, posttest, and follow-up). This approach allowed for a comprehensive examination of the intervention's short- and long-term effects on impulsivity in bully students.
Results
The results demonstrated that cognitive-based anger management training had a significant impact on reducing impulsivity among male bully students (p < 0.001). Descriptive findings further revealed a decrease in mean impulsivity scores and its specific dimensions among students who exhibited bullying behaviors. Importantly, these reductions were sustained during the two-month follow-up period, indicating that the intervention's effects persisted over time. Consequently, the bullying behaviors of these students did not revert to pre-intervention levels, suggesting that cognitive-based anger management may be an effective long-term strategy for mitigating impulsive tendencies and associated aggressive behaviors in bullying students.
Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest that cognitive-behavioral anger management training is an effective method for reducing impulsivity in male students who engage in bullying behaviors. By focusing on key areas such as anger management skills, practical techniques, and cognitive self-instruction, this approach enables students to manage their anger more constructively. Specifically, cognitive-behavioral training helps bullying students recognize and understand the thoughts and emotions related to anger and bullying, increases their tolerance for anger-provoking situations, and raises their awareness of related physiological changes.
This training encourages students to improve social cognition through techniques like relaxation exercises, positive self-talk, and assertiveness skills. As a result, they experience a reduction in impulsive behaviors, which also decreases their tendency to engage in bullying. Moreover, cognitive-based anger management training equips students with alternative ways to express emotions, fostering more adaptive and non-aggressive forms of self-expression. This approach teaches effective coping strategies, students who undergo this training are less likely to exhibit anger, irritability, and impulsive aggression.
Educational Psychology
Sara Ebrahimi; Zeynab Laki
Abstract
Introduction
Despite its many benefits, the Internet can be a great way to express risky online behaviors during adolescence. Committing cyberbullying and problematic use of the Internet are among the potentially high-risk behaviors on the Internet. Problem behaviors in adolescence originate from permanent ...
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Introduction
Despite its many benefits, the Internet can be a great way to express risky online behaviors during adolescence. Committing cyberbullying and problematic use of the Internet are among the potentially high-risk behaviors on the Internet. Problem behaviors in adolescence originate from permanent characteristics rather than from immediate, instantaneous characteristics. To understand these behaviors, it is necessary to focus on personality-related factors in addition to the perceived environment and behavioral systems. Considering the undeniable tendency of adolescents to excessive Internet use and the negative consequences resulting from this choice and the lack of empirical investigation of this issue in Iranian research, despite the importance of the relationship between problematic Internet use and psychological variables and cyberbullying, as well as contradictory findings on the significance of the relationship between some of these variables with the problematic Internet use and committing cyberbullying in past foreign studies, the present study aims to develop a structural model of the relationship between committing cyberbullying and psychological factors including social connectedness, self-esteem and depression among adolescent boy students through the problematic Internet use and to test the explanatory power of different models from the combination of some theoretical orientations through an assumed model, in order to provide more explanations about the relationships of the variables that were indicated in the past researches. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of problematic Internet use in the relationship between cyberbullying and psychological factors.
Method
The method of the present study was descriptive-correlational. The study population consisted of all boys’ high school students in Tehran in the academic year 1400-1401. The basis for choosing the sample size was the logic proposed by Kline (2010), that according to the free parameters of the assumed model and the possibility of dropping out of the participants, 325 people was selected as the research sample using the convenience method. To collect data, we used the Cyberbullying/ Victimization Experiences Questionnaire (Antoniadou, Kokkinos & Markos, 2016), Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (Jelenchick, Eickhoff, Christakis, Brown, Zhang, Benson et al., 2014), Short Depression-Happiness Scale (Joseph, Linley, Harwood, Lewis & McCollam, 2004), Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) & Revised Social Connectedness Scale (Lee & Robbins, 1998). The psychometric properties of all instruments were examined and confirmed. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling.
The inferential results showed that there is a positive, significant and direct relationship between depression and problematic Internet use and cyberbullying; negative & insignificant relationship between self-esteem with problematic Internet use, & negative, significant & direct relationship between self-esteem with cyberbullying; negative, significant and direct relationship between social connectedness with problematic Internet use and cyberbullying, & there is a positive and significant relationship between problematic Internet use with cyberbullying. Indirect effects of depression and social connectedness on cyberbullying through the problematic Internet use was statistically significant, and indirect effect of self-esteem was statistically insignificant. Accordingly, the indirect relationship between depression and social connectedness with cyberbullying through problematic Internet use was statistically significant, and the indirect relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying through problematic Internet use was not statistically significant.
Discussion
The findings of the present study proposed relationships in understanding problematic and risky online behaviors among adolescents and highlighted the important influence of psychological characteristics on problematic online behaviors and cyberbullying among students, as well as supporting evidence for the problematic behavior theory in explaining risky online behaviors, and provided offline students. The results of the present study can be used in preventive interventions for students' participation in cyberbullying, academic counseling centers or school counseling to guide parents, teachers and students to raise awareness about psychological well-being through the use of the Internet.
